Aquaculture in Africa / December update

People interested in joining a network on aquaculture in sub-saharan Africa, please consult http://www.sarnissa.org/. Disclaimer: This is not an extensive review of aquaculture in each country, this is a digest of the news about aquaculture in Africa released on Internet this month. The validity of any information or figures quoted is the responsibility of the individual newspapers and websites concerned. Also please check previous updates: August 2009, September 2009, October 2009, November 2009.

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Africa

• WorldFish Center explores challenges to the sustainability of fisheries posed by climate change

The WorldFish Center has highlighted the importance of understanding the linkages between climate change, livelihoods and food security. To address this, it is following an ambitious programme of research in the following four areas: (1) diagnosing vulnerability to climate change ; (2) understanding current coping mechanisms and adaptive responses ; (3) contributing to mitigation, and (4) building the capacity to respond and adapt. Studies diagnosing vulnerability of 132 national economies found that those fisheries at most risk are in countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Two thirds of these countries are in Africa where fish may provide more than half the total animal protein consumed. The Niger River basin which has a long history of vulnerability to drought and reduced river flow has been the focus of one initiative. WorldFish, working through the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food, is looking to identify threats to fishing-dependent communities and help government partners design adaptive policy approaches that improve water productivity and strengthen livelihood resilience. In sub-Saharan Africa, it is working with partners to refine integrated aquaculture-agriculture technologies to improve water productivity on farms, and combat the damaging effects of climate change on people's livelihoods [2].

• Fisheries, Aquaculture face multiple risks from climate change

A new report, published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations, predicts "an ocean of change" for fishers and fish farmers. It warned that urgent adaptation measures are required in response to opportunities and threats to food and livelihood provision due to climatic variations. The study, 'Climate change implications for fisheries and aquaculture', is one of the most comprehensive surveys to date of existing scientific knowledge on the impacts of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture. Covering some 500 scientific papers, the picture the FAO review paints is one of an already-vulnerable sector facing widespread and often profound changes. The report includes contributions from experts from around the world, including Dr Tim Daw and Prof Katrina Brown of the School of International Development and Prof Neil Adger of the School of Environmental Sciences at UEA. Other contributors come from the World Fish Center, Globec, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, and Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Sustainable Development Inland fisheries -- 90 per cent of which are found in Africa and Asia -- are also at risk, threatening the food supply and livelihoods of some of the world's poorest populations. Warming in Africa and central Asia is expected to be above the global mean, and predictions suggest that by 2100 significant negative impacts will be felt across 25 per cent of Africa's inland aquatic ecosystems. Fish farming will also be affected. Nearly 65 per cent of aquaculture is inland and concentrated mostly in the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, often in the delta areas of major rivers at the mid- to upper levels of tidal ranges. Sea level rise over the next decades will increase upstream salinity, affecting fish farms. A crucial issue highlighted by the report relates to how well such communities will be able to adapt to change. For example, even if African coastal fisheries do not face huge impacts, the region's 'adaptive capacity' to respond to climate change is low, rendering communities there highly vulnerable even to minor changes in climate and temperature [25].

Algeria

• Aquaculture complex in Hassi Lefhel (Ghardaia)

The Minister of Fisheries and Marine Resources, Smail Mimoun, made a visit to Hassi Lefhel, 130 km south of the capital of the Ghardaia wilaya where he was visiting the aquaculture complex he inaugurated on January 14, 2008. Covering an area of 4 hectares, the site holds 7 tilapia ponds and currently employs ten persons (engineers, veterinarians, technicians and agents). It is expected to develop its human workforce to 70 people. The wilaya of Ghardaia should benefit from another 4 new fish farms in the near future and from a training school on fish farming in Sahara region will soon open its doors in El Menea [12].

Burkina Faso

• Burkina's 4th biggest dam to be completed by January 2010

The Burkina's 4th biggest dam located in Soum, a village located at about 100 km from the capital Ouagadougou, in the Boulkiemdé province, is being built by the company Oumarou Kanazoé. It will be completed in minimum delay compared to initial schedule, 3 weeks. One of the expected benefit is the development of fish farming [8].

Cameroon

• Partnership IRAD-AQUASOL on shrimp farming

The local Research Center for Agricultural Development (IRAD) of Kribi served for the signing of a new partnership between the Director General of IRAD, Dr. Zock and S.M. Solomon Madiba Songué, president of the association AQUASOL (Aquaculture and Solidarity). Around them a delegation of the mayor of Brive-la-Gaillarde in France led by the Deputy Mayor Ms. Françoise Gautry, and the President of the Humanitarian Association Blue-Cameroon, Ms. Annie Trochery. The agreement is about a project designed by the Association Blue-Cameroon that aims at poverty alleviation in Cameroon, said Annie Trochery, helping the poor, individually or through their communities to become self-sufficient economically and socially through training on income generating activities, particularly aquaculture. The shrimp farming project is piloted in Cameroon by the Traditional Chief Madiba Songue and supported by the Ministry of Scientific Research and Innovation through the Research Center for Agricultural Development (IRAD). Ms. Trochery does not exclude the possibility that shrimp emerging in Cameroon expands into other African countries. To sustain this project, two young Cameroonians are already in training in Latin America, whereas others are actively working on site, being supervised by two French experts including Dr. Eric Miahle, who is actively supporting shrimp farming in Peru, Ecuador, Vietnam and soon Cameroon. Considering the work of Eric Miahle and his younger compatriot William, the shrimp project conducted in Cameroon is a fine example of scientific integration, integration with the traditional environment in the sense that everything is made from native prawns grown without antibiotics, no introduction of alien species, and minimal destruction of mangroves [3]. The project involves the construction of shrimp producing centers in Kribi (South) on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean, Limbe (South West) on the Atlantic Ocean and river Dibamba (Littoral). According to forecasts, river management in an area of 100 m2 each should produce an average of one ton of shrimp per entity. Besides industrial production, the production community could be operational within a year, since the lava shrimp products in the operation centers will be distributed to shrimp farmers within the next six months [5].

• 2010 Telefood fund raising campaign

Telefood is an annual FAO initiative aimed at raising funds and awareness about projects fighting hunger worldwide. These include small-scale fish farming projects. Telefood gives a direct support to communities suffering from food insecurity. It helps them increase income and productivity [14].

Gambia

• History of Aquaculture in the Nation

The earliest freshwater aquaculture trials were carried out in the 1970s and involved the culturing of Tilapia fish in small family fishponds by farmers in their rice fields in the fresh water zone of the river. Such earlier efforts at pond culture failed to produce the desired production levels, however, important lessons were learnt by the Fisheries Department. In the 80's, two Black Tiger shrimp farms have been operated in Pirang and Sanyang points by Scan Gambia Limited from Norway, but they closed down in 1992 due to financial problems. At the same time, the Gambia industrial farm, "West Africa Aquaculture", a semi-intensive farm, including a hatchery and a processing plant came in producing to the EU standards. Of the original 200 hectares, only 50 are being used for production today. The development of oyster cultivation in Gambia has also been a priority for the government for some years now. Today, aquaculture activities are currently being carried out by the Department of Fisheries in co-operation with Department of Agriculture. Tilapia is one of the fish species considered for future culture in the trial rice fields of the project. The Gambian leader himself is today the leading aquaculturist in the country, practicing the fish farming method in his home village of Kanilai. The strategy of the Gambia government includes the development of community participation, training farmers in pond construction methods and maintenance, tidal irrigation methods and access to loans [4].

Kenya

• Sack all incompetent staff, minister directs

Mop up the excess workforce employed under dubious circumstances, fisheries development minister Dr Paul Otuoma has directed the Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute. According to the KMFRI management up to about 200 people who were recruited in the 1990s did not have the relevant qualifications but were only engaged through political machinations. Certificate verification done in early 2000 netted about 200 staff with fake certificates who were eventually terminated however any attempt at downsizing is always viewed negatively since most staff are skewed to one or two specific communities. But speaking during the KEMFRI board workshop on re-invigoration and re-strategising the mandate and vision of the institute at the Sun n Sand hotel in Kilifi, the minister said the human resource issue should be addressed immediately. KMFRI Board chairperson Prof Penina Aloo-Obudho thanked the government for recognizing the important role the ministry of fisheries development played in reducing poverty levels, food security and creating jobs for the Kenyan youths. “The government has provided a stimulus package for selected sectors and its gratifying that the ministry benefited and received an allocation of Sh1.2billion for the national aquaculture development,” she said [19].

• A little ingenuity, more cash

As Kenyan farmers struggle to find ways to overcome the high prices of feeds and fertiliser, one man is already ahead of the pack. Mr Jackson Kanyinge, a fish farmer from Gangarithi in Nyeri, is now saving a lot as he continues to rear his Tilapia species on a three-quarter acre piece of land. Instead of using commercial feed that most people rely on to breed his fish, the farmer-cum businessman has found a cheaper alternative - pigs droppings - to keep them alive as his business continues to flourish. The farmer also eliminated catfish from his pond, which he said started feeding on Tilapia fingerlings as soon as he stopped feeding them with poultry droppings. Due to a shortage of fish supply from his farm, the farmer was compelled to close the fish shop that he had established in Nyeri Town in 2004 when he started rearing fish. He decided to keep pigs as a means of earning money, which would help him buy feed for his fish. And as time went by, the 55-year-old father of three decided to try feeding fish in one of his two ponds with pigs droppings and the other one with fish meal. After harvesting fish from the two ponds and comparing them, those that fed on pig droppings were larger than those that grew on fish meal. Now Mr Kanyinge has constructed pigsties near the ponds to facilitate easy drainage of waste directly into the ponds which acts as pond fertiliser and supports dense growth of natural fish food organisms.“Besides, fish also feed directly on the pig waste and no other feed or fertiliser is applied to the pond. This makes it simple and cheaper for me,” he says. Now he is considering restarting his shop due to the increasing demand of the fish [20].

• Villagers turn stone into fish

Once worthless and abandoned, a quarry at Harambee in Kenya's Nyando District has been reinvented and is helping to bridge a deficit in fish supply at the local market. Having lost its top soil to road construction works along the adjacent Katito — Kendu Bay Road about two decades ago, the gaping two metre deep crater was an eyesore. This was before it was fashioned into a fish rearing ground by Mother Nature. Ground water seeped in from beneath and filled it up. For sometime, it became the village watering hole for livestock but with time, a new role was born: they realised that fish could be reared in cages immersed into the water. Aided by the Kenya Marine Fisheries Research Institute’ the locals community is rearing tilapia in cages immersed into the dam. Last year, the group, Nyando District Centre for Environmental Conservation (Nyadec) harvested its first batch of fish from the facility, which according to the group’s chairman, Mr Peter Ochola, was worth Sh350,000. The immediate beneficiaries of the fish are the local community, whose supply has been sliced by the growing export market. Most of the food landed from lakes such as Victoria, Baringo and Turkana, and the Indian Ocean go to the export market, says Dr Richard Abila, the deputy director of KMFRI. The cage culture project at Harambee is part of the BOMOSA project, which was introduced much earlier to exploit small underutilized water bodies. Implemented in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, the project is a collaboration of several institutions handling different aspects of the project such as socio-economics and research [21].

• New feed protocol to boost fish farming

Kenya will soon have in place a fish feed protocol to offer guidelines to manufacturers. Fisheries Development minister Paul Otuoma said the move is aimed at ensuring that fish farmers get quality feeds. The minister said fish production from Lake Victoria has declined from 200,000 metric tonnes in 1999 to about 114,000 metric tonnes last year with no signs of stocks recovering soon. He said they had carried our aquaculture suitability survey noting that preliminary results indicate that there is enormous potential for fish farming in the whole country. Mr Otuoma said the potential area suitable for fish farming is over 1.14 million hectares adding that if the potential is fully exploit, production could be increased to 11 million metric tonnes per annum and fetch Sh750 billion. Dr Otuoma said the current production is only 4,220 metric tonnes with a total area under aquaculture production standing at 722 hectares. He added that the project will employ 280,000 youths and who will earn Sh700 million [22].

Madagascar

• Japan cooperation should develop soon a very large aquaculture project in Boeny region

The Japanese government through its Executing Agency JICA plans to build a large aquaculture project in the Region Boeny from the month of December 2009. Following various feasibility studies conducted since 2007, Marovoay, Mahajanga II and Ambato Boeny have been considered suitable for aquaculture of tilapia. The Senior Advisor of JICA Chikami Satoshi and his team went recently to Mahajanga last week to work on the issue of qualified personnel for this project. Indeed, "the staff should be provided locally," said the representative of JICA [1] [14] [24].

• Philippine seaweed processors scrambling for supplies could import from Madagascar
  

Philippine seaweed processors will push for measures to boost local seaweed production and tap other countries as potential suppliers, following Indonesia’s decision to restrict its raw seaweed exports. Indonesia, which supplies about a third of the raw seaweed requirements of Philippine manufacturers of the gelatinous extract, is following the path chosen by the Philippines, which was transformed in the last decade from a major seaweed exporter into a net seaweed importer and major carrageenan supplier. Benson U. Dakay, president of the Seaweed Industry Association of the Philippines (SIAP), told reporters other countries that have the potential to supply raw seaweeds for the manufacture of carrageenan are Madagascar, Vietnam and Cambodia. Raw seaweeds from these three countries are also priced lower because they are just starting to develop the industry, he added. Another potential supplier is India. Philippine raw dried seaweed exports declined to about 80,000 MT in 2008 from almost 100,000 MT in 2000 as processing capacity grew. The Philippines became a net seaweed importer in 2007. Seaweed imports reached over 15,000 MT in 2008, a study by Seaplant.net Foundation in Indonesia showed. The Philippine seaweed industry now exports mostly value-added carrageenan or blended ingredient solutions rather than raw seaweeds. As of last May, over 140,000 MT of carrageenan dave been exported to 78 countries, the study added. More than half, or 55%, went to France and China [13].

Mauritius

• Transfer of knowledge regarding fish farming from National Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Research (NIFES) to Mauritius

Mauritius aims at increasing its fish farming activities. The National Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Research (NIFES) contributes with scientific advice in order for Mauritius to establish appropriate legislation and monitoring of both fish and feed. In 2008, Norad started a 3-year programme of co-operation between the Centre for Development Co-operation in Fisheries, the Norwegian Institute of Marine Research, the Directorate of Fisheries and the National Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Research (NIFES) on the Norwegian side, and the Ministry of Agro Industry and Fisheries (MAIF) in Mauritius. The aim of the project is to share expertise on management of fisheries and fish farming activities. - Through several workshops NIFES will contribute with expertise within monitoring systems to assist public management in Mauritius and the establishment of monitoring systems for the island's fish farming activities [16].

Mayotte

• 5 millions euros for the development of aquaculture

Following riots in French tropical territories earlier this year, a wide consultation has been launched after which many investments have been decided. In the case of Mayotte, the investment will include 5 millions Euros for the development of aquaculture [11].

Nigeria

• Major challenge in fish farming identifies disease outbreaks as a major challenge in fish farming

The Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR), Lagos has identified disease outbreaks as a major challenge in fish farming, according to its Executive Director, Mr Olajide Ayinla. Ayinla said that outside the problem of high cost of fish feeds, health problems in fish farming constituted a serious threat to sustainability in the industry. “The use of antibiotics in fish farming by untrained hands is a serious threat to public health and this will continue until farmers have viable alternatives,” Ayinla said. He, therefore implored participants at the training to use the opportunity to provide alternatives to self medication as presently practiced by many fish farmers [6].

• Uduaghan’s aide lauds aquaculture development

Executive Assistant to Delta State governor on Micro Credit Programme (DMCP), Dr. Anthonia Ashiedu, has hailed the development of aquaculture in the state, saying it has become one of the major sources of livelihood to the people. The Executive Director/CEO, Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR), Lagos, Dr. O.A Ayinla, in his lecture on Building Technical and Management Capacity in Aquaculture, stated that “the role of aquaculture in increasing protein consumption in the world depends on demand.” Also speaking on the occasion, Mr. Yakubu Adams Femi of NIOMR, Sapele outstation, advised against the use of fertiliser nutrients containing toxic chemicals as they could reduce the quality and quantity of fish production. Dr. Adekunle Oresegun of NIOMR, Lagos emphasised the need to supplement pond-raised fish with fish feeds as natural food is limited or almost absent [17].

• World Bank’s US$150m agric project kicks off

The World Bank assisted Commercial Agriculture Project worth $150 Million has taken off in the five participating states of Nigeria. The states are Kaduna, Kano, Lagos, Cross River and Kano. According a statement from the World Bank country office in Abuja, endorsed by the Senior Communications Specialist, Mr. Obadiah Otohomdet, the project will support three value chains per state, and it will be aquaculture in Lagos [23].

Reunion

• Reunion is the perfect place to develop a micro-algae production chain

Carlos Vaca-Garcia is a professor at the Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse and researcher at the Laboratory of Agro-industrial chemistry. On the occasion of meetings at Qualitropic, he came to plead the cause of micro-algae for Reunion. Micro-algae are already used in Reunion for biofuel production. Could there be other applications ? According to Carlos Vaca-Garcia, yes. Micro-algae are a new biomass from which one can produces energy but also biomaterials and food components. Local entrepreneurs such as Bioalgostral are already involved in the biofuel production but he believes that the current single-use and valorization is the wrong solution. In Reunion, developing micro-algae would reactivate the local economy without harming the environment. Only thing needed is sun. Micro-algae are grown in vertical reactors, there is no need for large areas of farmland. Reunion is ideal for the microalgae sector [15].

Senegal

• Slight change in Senegal Government affects Ministry of Fish farming
  

After the change, Mr. Modou Diagne «Fada» becomes Minister of Health, whereas Ms. Thé­rèse Coum­ba Diop, former Minister of Health, becomes Minister of Biofuels and Fish farming. As a consequence Ms Fatou Gaye Sarr, who used to be the Minister of Agri­cul­ture, Fish Farming and Bio­fuels is now Minister of Agriculture [10]. However, this decision raises protests from supporters of Ms. Thé­rèse Coum­ba Diop who consider she was unfairly "downgraded" to a less important administration [9].

• A White Grouper Aquaculture experience

Between 2007-2009, Kawamura Kenji (also known as Khalifa Diouf) and Senegalese fishermen made an aquaculture test of White Grouper (Epinephelus aeneus) farming in Senegal. This video (in french) relates the experiment [30].

South Africa

• Coega port is hit by a R10bn torpedo

More than R10-billion worth of projects have been scrapped or temporarily shelved at the port development of Coega over concerns about Eskom's proposed tariff increases and the global recession. The projects, including a proposed R9.2-billion prawn-farming venture, have been canned just months after aluminium producer Rio Tinto Alcan ditched plans to build a R20-billion smelter. The companies involved include Rainbow Nation Renewable Fuels, SeaArk, Straits Chemicals, Coega Chemicals, Maritime Motors, Mediterranean Shipping Company and SATI. Rio Tinto Alcan, which had already spent about $130-million on the 720000-ton smelter from November 2006, announced its decision to jump ship in October. It had initially announced that it would put the project on hold until about 2012, while reviewing South Africa's electricity supply problems. Coega, a 12-year-old deep-water port and industrial area 22km outside Port Elizabeth, became South Africa's first industrial development zone. But electricity shortages and repeated blackouts, along with the global economic crisis, have made investors hesitant to plough more money into the site. The dropping of the 1200 ha prawn-farming project, which was expected to create 11000 jobs by 2014 and which was to have had the capacity to grow 20000 tons of prawns a year, has resulted in the retrenchment of almost all 50 employees. The electricity-intensive prawn project was launched in 2005 by SeaArk, which is affiliated to the controversial Bosasa group of companies. The company has blamed the recession, a lack of bank funding and Eskom's proposed tariff hikes for the decision. Bosasa spokesman Papa Leshabane said the project had come to a halt as banks "were not keen to put money into such projects", with Eskom's hikes costing "a fortune in electricity bills" [29].

• Southern Africa links water research expertise

A project to boost water resources in southern Africa, first announced in 2003, held its first executive meeting last month. The Water Centres of Excellence Initiative, started by New Partnerships for Development in Africa (NEPAD), aims to promote cooperation and knowledge transfer among water research institutions to secure adequate clean water and manage resources for national and regional development. It was established after the first African Ministerial Conference on Science and Technology in 2003 but an expansion of the centres is only now under discussion. Centres of water excellence are already operational in Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa and Zambia, and other Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) countries will be invited to become partners if they have water research programmes [28].

Tunisie

• Aquaculture: 3.2 thousand tonnes of production

Aquaculture in Tunisia is a growing business and the National Institute of Science and Technology for the Sea (INTECHMER) hold on Thursday, December 10, 2009, an information day on "the use of the scientific research results in the field of the aquaculture". The Tunisian aquaculture landscape contains 14 projects under development, including 7 saltwater fish farming, 5 freshwater fish farming and 2 projects for shellfish farming. As regards to productive projects, they are 23 with 4 projects for the fattening of bluefin tuna, 6 shellfish farming projects and 4 freshwater farming projects [16].

• Country seeks to promote fish farming industry

Organized by the National Institute of Science and Sea Technology, a conference was held in Tunis, to take stock of scientific research in the fish farming sector with a view to strengthen this activity and set up new projects. Research results on the control of fish farming techniques and ways to improve its production, in addition to the promotion of fish farming in Tunisia's major dam reservoirs, were discussed during the conference. The conference aims at increasing the contribution of this sector to the production of fish products to 10 % by 2016 to reach 8, 000 tons of marine fish, 5,500 tons of freshwater fish, 800 tons of shells and nearly 300 tons of shrimps. Tunisia currently boasts 23 fishing projects, including 9 for fish farming, 4 for blue fin tuna farming, 6 others for shellfish and 4 projects for freshwater farming. In addition, 14 projects are currently underway, including 7 fish farming projects, 5 for fresh water farming and 2 dedicated to shellfish, besides 20 other projects under study [26].

Uganda

• Fish Farming Brings Quick Returns in Short Time

Agriculturalists at Makerere University Agricultural Research Institute (Muraik), Kabanyolo, said within eight months of good feeding, a farmer can harvest tilapia of one and half Kilos which is sold at about Shs5,000. In case of other types such as lung and mud fish, one can harvest them within the same duration although at six months these species are ready for harvesting. The Kabanyolo farm assistant manager, Chrysostom Tweyambe says this is one of the simplest types of commercialised farming methods to venture into with big profits [7].

• Busia Border Fish Ponds to Give Farmers Shs150 Million

Communities living in the Sio-Siteko trans-boundary wetland in Busia could soon be raking in millions of shillings following the launch of fish ponds' project. The three community groups of Bunyide, Budimo and Bunyadeti made up of former labour groups that have depended on tilling farmlands for a paltry earning most of their lives, are poised to earn Shs50m each at the first harvest come February next year. The ponds, seven in number, range between 200 to 400 square metres. With funding from the Swedish government, the $90,000 (Shs166m) project was offset by Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) in July. In case of any mismanagement of the project, the communities who run the project will be forced to forfeit the enterprise to another group. The groups are made up of 25 people each. This is a new strategy through which NBI together with the government transform the way wetlands are used. It allows the communities to sustainably earn a living without contravening environmental laws. If the strategy works, it could be replicated in other wetlands [18].

• Sio-Siteko Trans-boundary Wetland Management Plan

Kenya's Mulwanda location rolled out the Sio-Siteko Trans-boundary Wetland Management Plan. The wetland management plan was developed by both Kenyan and Ugandan communities residing on the 1,370 square kilometres wide wetland, with support from Nile Trans-boundary Environmental Action Project (NTEAP), and the Sio-Malaba-Malakisi Investment Project of the Nile Basin Initiative and the Lake Victoria Basin Commission. The launch was graced by Kenyan dignitaries led by Kenya's Assistant Minister of Environment and Mineral Resources, Mr Ramathan Seif Kajembe [18].

• NAADS Officials Offer to Pay Back 350 Million

Technical and political officers in Iganga district, who were accused of having caused financial loss of over sh350m to the National Agriculture Advisory Services (NAADS) programme, have accepted to refund the money. The decision was reached during a meeting with a sub-committee of the taskforce which visited the district to carry out more investigations. The investigators, drawn from the Internal Security Organisation, the Anti-Corruption Department and the Criminal Investigations Department, said the officers they interacted with, including NAADS coordinators and sub-county chiefs, agreed to refund the money [27].


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